Origin
From the ancient legend of the creation of Chinese characters by Cangjie to the discovery of oracle bone inscriptions more than 100 years ago, Chinese scholars of all ages have been committed to uncovering the mystery of the origin of Chinese characters. Regarding the origin of Chinese characters, there are various theories in ancient Chinese literature, such as "knots", "gossips", "pictures", "scripts", etc. Ancient books also generally record the legend of the creation of characters by Cangjie, the historian of the Yellow Emperor. Modern scholars believe that a systematic writing tool cannot be completely created by one person. If Cangjie does exist, he should be the organizer or promulgator of writing.
The earliest carved symbols are more than 8,000 years ago
In recent decades, the Chinese archaeological community has released a series of unearthed materials that are earlier than the oracle bone inscriptions at the Yin Ruins in Anyang and related to the origin of Chinese characters. These materials mainly refer to the engraved or painted symbols that appeared on pottery in the late primitive society and early historical society. They also include a small amount of symbols engraved on oracle bones, jades, stone tools, etc. It can be said that they all provide new basis for explaining the origin of Chinese characters.
By systematically examining and comparing the engraved symbols on pottery shards unearthed from more than 100 sites of 19 archaeological cultures across China, Wang Yunzhi, a doctoral supervisor at Zhengzhou University, believes that the earliest engraved symbols in China are Appeared at the Jiahu site in Wuyang, Henan, it has a history of more than 8,000 years.
As a professional worker, he tried to further analyze these original materials through scientific means, such as the comprehensive use of some basic methods such as archeology, ancient writing morphology, comparative philology, technological archeology, and high-tech means. After a comprehensive sorting, some clues about the occurrence and development of Chinese characters before the writing of the Shang Dynasty were revealed.
However, the situation is not that simple. In addition to the existing small materials from the Zhengzhou Shangcheng site and the Xiaoshuangqiao site (more than 10 examples of early Shang Dynasty Zhu Shu and pottery inscriptions have been discovered at this site in recent years), they can be directly compared with the Yin Ruins inscriptions. Compared with the sequence, other pre-Shang symbols are scattered and scattered, with many missing links from each other, and most of the symbols are inconsistent with the characters of the Shang Dynasty. There are also some symbols with strong regional colors and complex backgrounds.
One of the 500 most commonly used Chinese characters
In this country, there are no people who can use it from time to time. Divided into pairs, the co-workers can lead the initiative and talk about the aspects of production, and then the people can get the experience of the Thirteenth Progress and other departments. The actual increase in the amount of small things in both systems should be used by practitioners to open and close it. However, due to the fact that the current foreign affairs on the 4th, the general appearance and the relevant internal numbers are correct. Is it true that Libby or Libi or his character and temperament have not solved the problem? The people who have no ties to the army and are very sentimental have already figured it out and raised the direct issue of the party agenda. The fruit material elephant clerk was transferred to the general manager of the general defective product design and management special parts. He requested the old man's basic capital, the border flow path, and the general manager to receive the general information. The ninth district was forced to release the west and was forced to fight. The first to return was to take the seguangmen in the south. That is to protect the north and make hundreds of regulations. The hot lead was in the east of Haikou. Lian Shi recognized the rights of the six *** to receive the certificate and change it to the United States and then adopt the change sheet to change the wind cut and hit white to teach the fast flower to install the vehicle body and the actual service tool. Hua Ming is indeed talented, Zhang Xin, Ma Jiehua, Mi Zhongkong, Yuan Kuang, Jin Ji, Wen Chuantu, Xu Buqun, Guang Shi Ji, need to study the world, Lalin rhythm, call and study, Guan Yue, weaving, shadow, low holding sound, many books, cloth and complex appearance. The Qingdao Provincial Xi Jinping Committee sent a general thank-you mission to Sulli City to eliminate the problem of deep and difficult near-mining mines. Mark out the mark and write down the waiting period for Mao Qin, quick-acting Si hospital, Chajiang type eye king, according to the grid, easy to set up, layer tablets, only the special breeding factory, Jingshi, suitable round package, fire, live, transfer, Manxian county bureau, reference to ginseng red fine, listen to the Iron price is strict
The Chinese character system was formally formed in the Central Plains region
Wang Yunzhi believes that the formal formation of the Chinese character system should be in the Central Plains region. Chinese characters are a writing system with independent origin. It does not depend on any foreign characters for its existence. However, its origin is not single. It has gone through multiple and long-term development. About the time of entering the Xia Dynasty, the ancestors began to write Chinese characters. Based on the extensive experience of absorbing and using early symbols, he creatively invented a text symbol system for recording language. At that time, the Chinese character system matured relatively quickly.
It is reported that judging from the written materials unearthed from archaeological excavations, China already had formal writing at least during the Yu and Xia Dynasties. For example, in recent years, archaeologists have discovered the word "文" written in calligraphy on a flat pottery pot from the Tao Temple site in Xiangfen, Shanxi. These symbols all belong to the basic configuration of early writing systems. Unfortunately, such unearthed writing information is still scarce.
Writing first matured in the Shang Dynasty
As far as the Yin and Shang written materials currently known and seen, there are many categories of writing carriers. In addition to writing on slips with brushes, the other main means of writing at that time were inscriptions on tortoise shells and animal bones, pottery, jade, and pottery casting on bronzes. The written materials of the Shang Dynasty are mainly carried by the oracle bones and bronze ritual vessels used for divination in the Yin Ruins. It is the earliest mature writing discovered in China so far.
The characters of the Shang Dynasty reflected in the Yinxu period are not only reflected in the large number of characters and rich materials, but also in the way of character creation that has formed its own characteristics and rules.
The structural characteristics of the basic characters of the Shang Dynasty can be divided into four categories: taking the physical characteristics of the human body and a certain part of the human body as the basis for character construction; taking labor creations and labor objects as the basis for character construction; taking the images of animals and livestock as the basis for character construction; take natural objects as the basis for character construction. From the perspective of the cultural connotation of the configuration, we can see that the objects chosen by these earlier and more mature glyphs are quite close to the social life of our ancestors, and have strong realistic characteristics. At the same time, the content described by these glyphs involves all aspects of human and nature, so it also has the characteristics of a wide range of sources of configuration.
1. Oracle bone inscriptions
Oracle bone inscriptions are written in the Yin and Shang Dynasties and are used by only a few divination historians. It is mainly written on turtle shell animal bones with a knife. Because the bones of tortoise shells are hard, the strokes are mostly straight and rarely round. Because the oracle bone inscriptions are carved with a sharp knife, the lines are thin and even. Oracle bone inscriptions are the earliest Chinese characters and have the characteristics of early Chinese characters: they are highly pictorial, have no fixed writing style, vary in size, and are highly random.
Try to guess what the six ancient characters in the picture below are:
Answer:
Zhen Xiyu
(Understanding ) (pictogram) (pictogram)
Jin Qiji
(knowing) (pictographic) (knowing)
2. Bronze inscriptions
Bronze inscriptions, also called bell and tripod inscriptions, were popular in the Western Zhou Dynasty. It is a text engraved on bronze. The shape and structure of bronze inscriptions are similar to oracle bone inscriptions. Because bronze inscriptions are made by carving characters on molds and then casting them, it is easier to write. Therefore, its strokes are characterized by rounded characters and uniform sizes. The pictographic quality is lower than that of oracle bone inscriptions, and the stereotyping of characters has been improved, but there are still more variant characters.
3. Seal script
Seal script can be divided into large seal script and small seal script. Dazhuan is a kind of writing written by King Zhou Xuan in the late Western Zhou Dynasty, also known as Zhouwen. It has the same type as the stone drum script of Qin during the Warring States Period and the literacy textbook "Shi Zhoupian" used by King Zhou Xuan. The physical characteristics are generally consistent with the bronze inscriptions, with the characteristics of numerous strokes. Xiaozhuan is a unified font promulgated by the Qin Dynasty when the policy of writing with the same text was implemented. It was modified by Li Si and others after sorting out the text. Because it is an officially issued unified font, it has been organized and simplified, so the number of variant characters has been greatly reduced, and the font shape is rectangular, laying the foundation for the "square shape" of Chinese characters. The small seal strokes are more symmetrical and neat, the lines are consistent in thickness, more rounded, the symbolism is enhanced, and the pictorial meaning is greatly disappeared. Because Xiaozhuan is simplified on the basis of Dazhuan, it is generally said that Xiaozhuan is the simplified version of Dazhuan.
Xiaozhuan calligraphy: The pines beside the wild crane's nest are the oldest, the rain has begun to clear on the cactus, the river flows with sound, and the bank is broken thousands of feet
4. Official script
Official script originated in the Qin Dynasty and became popular in the Han Dynasty. In the Qin Dynasty, official script and Xiaozhuan were used in parallel, and they were a convenient script for scribes to copy official documents on a daily basis. Xiaozhuan is difficult to write and cannot meet the needs of official documents in the Qin Dynasty. It is mostly used in more formal occasions. In order to facilitate and quickly write, the official script changed the round and even lines of the small seal script into square, folded, straight and thick strokes; the vertical and cohesive structure style of the small seal script was changed to a horizontal, flat and stretched style; at this time, the official script became no longer pictographic Chinese character symbols. The official script changed the fonts of Chinese characters tremendously. Therefore, the "official script" became the dividing line between ancient and modern Chinese characters. The Chinese characters before Xiaozhuan are ancient Chinese characters. Their most common characteristics are that they are strong in iconography and poor in stereotypes. The characters are composed of lines and there are no strokes, the elements that form characters. The Chinese characters after the official script are the modern Chinese characters. The characteristics of modern Chinese characters are that they are highly symbolic and stereotyped, and the characters are composed of a limited variety of strokes. In the Han Dynasty, official script replaced Xiaozhuan and became the official writing style, also known as "Han Li" (also known as modern official script). Han Li writing styles are diverse, one is mainly square pen, such as "Zhang Qian Stele"; the other is mainly round pen, such as "Cao Quan Stele".
Edit this paragraph Principles of character creation
The six books are the basic principles of Chinese character composition. The six books are mentioned in Zhou Rites, but the specific content is not explained. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Xu Shen elaborated on the construction principles of Chinese characters of "Six Books" in "Shuowen Jiezi": pictogram, referring to things, understanding, pictophonetic, transliteration, and pretense.
Pictographic: This method of making characters is to depict the object according to its appearance characteristics. The so-called painting is to follow the object. The four characters such as sun, moon, mountain, and water were originally used to depict the sun, moon, mountain, and water, and later gradually evolved into the current shape.
Referring to things: This refers to the method of expressing abstract things. The so-called "each refers to his own thing and thinks of it". Ru Bu writes "Shang" above it, and Ren writes "Xia" below it.
Phonetic: This is a unique sound represented by a specific shape (root) in the text. For example: Hu, this character can also be a root. Combined with different attribute roots, it can be synthesized into: butterfly, butterfly, lake, gourd, coral, 鐐, etc., with the same pronunciation (some only have the same initial consonants) , expressing different things. However, due to changes in the phonology of ancient and modern languages, many pictophonetic characters of the same type in ancient times no longer have the same phonemes in today's Mandarin.
Knowing: This word-making method is to combine two radicals to derive new meanings. For example, when "sun" and "moon" are combined, sunlight plus moonlight becomes "bright". The word "人" and the word "言" combine to form the word "信", which means what a person has said in the past; "faith" means that this person always abides by what he has said.
Annotation: This is used when two words are annotations for each other, which are synonymous with each other but have different shapes. Xu Shen of the Han Dynasty explained: "To build a similar poem, we agree to accept each other, and it is always the same as Kao and Lao Shi." , how do you say this? These two words, "kao" in ancient times, can be used as "longevity". "Lao" and "kao" are connected and have the same meaning. That is to say, the old person is Kao, and the person who is Kao is old. The Book of Songs' "Daya? Chupu" also says: "The longevity test of the king of Zhou.". Su Shi's "Poetry on Qu Yuan Pagoda" also has ancients who are immortal, so why bother to test it. One word. The words "kao" and "kao" all mean "old". It is particularly noteworthy that later generations of philologists also made a lot of explanations for Xu Shen's aforementioned definitions. These include "Xing Zhuo theory, Sheng Zhuo theory, and Yi Zhuo theory." "Three categories, but some people think that these three views are not comprehensive enough. Mr. Lin Yu, a contemporary ancient calligrapher, also explained that "zhuanzhu" is a form (root) that records two words with completely different pronunciations and meanings. For example, "broom and" "Woman" and "Mother and daughter" in oracle bone inscriptions, etc.
Borrowing: In short, this method is to borrow a word to express other things. Generally speaking, there is an indescribable new Things are borrowed from a root with similar pronunciation or similar attributes to express this new thing. For example: "you" originally refers to the right hand (first seen in oracle bone inscriptions), but was later borrowed to mean "also". The original meaning of "smell" is to listen to things with ears. For example, in "University·Chapter 7" there is "turn a blind eye, hear but not hear, eat without knowing the taste", but it was later used as a verb for smell (although some people think this is a misuse). ).
To summarize the above six books, the first two are "methods of making characters"; the second two are "methods of forming characters"; the last two are "methods of using characters". The principle is a theory of Chinese characters summarized by ancient philology scholars, which has evolved over a long period of time and is not the original creation of any one person.
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p>Chinese characters are composed of one or more radicals arranged in a square in a specific space in a two-dimensional manner (European languages ??are one-dimensional), so they are also called square characters. From a structural point of view, Chinese characters have the following characteristics:
A single character has a high information density. When expressing the same thing, the same message can be expressed in a shorter space than phonetic characters, so the reading efficiency of Chinese characters is very high. High.
A Chinese character is composed of more than 400 ideographic letters as basic characters, such as gold, wood, water, fire, earth, etc.
The meaning of an unknown word can be split into words, and its meaning can be inferred from the composition of the root and the arrangement of spaces. When the evolution of the times creates new things that are difficult to express in words, new words can also be synthesized based on the principle of root combination. For example, the Chinese character for uranium is a newly created character in modern times to express a newly discovered chemical element.
The spatial configuration of the radicals composed of Chinese characters has an impact on the meaning of the word: for example, it is also "heart followed by death". " is a combination of "busy" in the left and right rows, and "forget" in the upper and lower rows. The arrangement is different, resulting in different meanings; there is a component of the character "乂" on the right side of the text, which means that the right hand (the left radical of the hand represents the left hand) is holding something To do something with the root on the left (discovered by archeology of bronze inscriptions and oracle bone inscriptions), if you hold something on the right hand, it becomes "攵". People with this root are almost always aggressive or use violence to achieve something, for example Attack, defeat, knock, collect, disperse, political, animal husbandry, edict, etc.
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(Chinese calligraphy): The Chinese characters for the word "国" are. Various writing methods have different fonts; different fonts have different glyphs of Chinese characters.
Chinese characters written in regular fonts (such as regular script, Song style, official script, seal script, etc.) are square characters, and each character occupies the same space. Chinese characters include single characters and combined characters. Single characters cannot be separated, such as "文", "中", etc.; combined characters are composed of basic components and account for more than 90% of Chinese characters. Common combinations of combined characters include: upper and lower structures, such as "xiao" and "jian"; left and right structures, such as "ci" and "ke"; semi-enclosed structures, such as "同" and "成"; full-enclosed structures, such as "Tuan", "Hui"; compound structures, such as "Win", "Ban", etc. The basic components of Chinese characters include single characters, radicals and other uncharacterized components.
The smallest unit of Chinese characters is the stroke.
When writing Chinese characters, the direction and order of strokes, that is, the "stroke order", are relatively fixed. The basic rules are: first horizontally and then vertically, first left and then flattened, from top to bottom, from left to right, first outside then inside, first outside then inside before sealing, first in the middle and then on both sides. The stroke order of Chinese characters in different writing styles may be different.
Edit the pronunciation of this paragraph
Chinese characters are a unique writing system for many dialects, and each character represents a syllable. Mainland China now uses Mandarin as the standard pronunciation. The syllables of Mandarin are determined by an initial consonant, a final and a tone. More than 1,300 syllables are actually used. Due to the large number of Chinese characters, there is an obvious phenomenon of homophones; at the same time, there are also situations where the same character has multiple sounds, which is called polyphone. This situation is common in various Chinese languages.
Although Chinese characters are mainly ideographic, they are not without phonetic components. The most common ones are names of people and places, followed by transliterations of foreign words, such as sofa. In addition, there are some original phonetic words, such as (one life) "woohoo", "haha" and so on. But even so, there are still certain ideographic elements, especially the names of people and places in the country.
Even for foreign names of people and places, there are certain bottom lines of meaning. For example, "Bush" must not be transliterated into "immortal".
Because Chinese characters themselves do not represent sounds, although the number and writing methods of Chinese characters have changed from the Han Dynasty to the 20th century, the changes in pronunciation cannot be seen. Special research is necessary to speculate on their pronunciation in Old and Middle Chinese. Some scholars believe that before the Han Dynasty, a Chinese character was pronounced as two syllables, a minor syllable and a major syllable, similar to today's Korean and Japanese.
The pronunciation of Chinese characters in Japanese can be divided into "phonetic pronunciation" and "training pronunciation". One character often has many pronunciations. The reason comes from the pronunciation introduced to Japan from China in different periods.
In Korean, it is roughly one word for one sound, and there is no training in reading.
In addition to Japan, other countries that use Chinese characters also use some polysyllabic characters, such as "里" (nautical mile), "嗧" (gallon), "瓩" (kilowatt), etc. However, it is basically no longer used in mainland China due to official abolishment. It is still used in Taiwan, and ordinary people understand its meaning.
Edit this paragraph's phonetic notation
The earliest phonetic notation methods are the Duruo method and the direct injection method. To pronounce Ruofa is to use words with similar pronunciation to notate the pronunciation. Xu Shen's Shuowen Jiezi uses this phonetic notation method, such as "廻, she is also a pronunciation, and the pronunciation is accurate". The direct annotation method is to use another Chinese character to indicate the pronunciation of this Chinese character. For example, in "The woman is the one who talks about herself," the phonetic notation is done with "The speaker is Yue".
The above two methods have inherent imperfections. Some words do not have homophones or the homophones are too rare, which makes it difficult to play the role of phonetic notation, such as "Socks Yinshao" and so on.
Fanqie method was developed during the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and it is said that it was influenced by Sanskrit using pinyin script. The pronunciation of Chinese characters can be annotated by the fanqie method, that is, the initial consonant of the first character and the final and tone of the second character are combined to notate the pronunciation, making it possible to combine the pronunciations of all Chinese characters. For example, "Lian, Langdianqie" means that the pronunciation of "Lian" is made up of the initial consonant of "Lang" and the final and tone of "Dian".
In modern times, phonetic symbols in the form of Chinese characters (commonly known as ㄅㄆㄇㄈ) and many Latin alphabet phonetic notation methods have been developed. Phonetic notation is still part of teaching in Taiwan, but currently the most widely used in mainland China is Hanyu Pinyin.
Since Chinese characters mainly express their own meanings, their phonetic notation is relatively weak. This feature prevents documents dating back thousands of years from being too disparate in wording and phrasing like the Western world that uses pinyin writing, but it also makes it difficult to infer ancient pronunciation. For example, "Pang" derives its sound from "龙", but in today's Beijing dialect, the former is pronounced "páng" and the latter is pronounced "lóng". How to explain such differences is a topic discussed in phonology.
Edit Chinese characters and words in this paragraph
Chinese characters are the smallest unit of Chinese characters.
Morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in Chinese, which is analogous to the general term of "vocabulary" and "phrase" in English. Most Chinese characters can independently form morphemes, such as "I", which is analogous to words composed of single letters in English, such as "I". Most words in modern vernacular texts are composed of two or more Chinese characters. However, unlike the relationship between "vocabulary" and "letter" in English, the meaning of a morpheme is often related to the meaning of each Chinese character when it independently forms a morpheme. , thus simplifying memory to a considerable extent.
Words include morphemes and phrases formed by several morphemes.
The high efficiency of Chinese characters is reflected in the fact that hundreds of basic pictograms can be combined into tens of thousands of Chinese characters representing various things in the sky and on earth; thousands of commonly used characters can be easily combined into hundreds of thousands of words. .
However, on the other hand, accurately mastering the collocation forms and usage of these hundreds of thousands of words has become a burden. There are tens of thousands of commonly used Chinese words, and the total vocabulary is about one million words. Although the number seems a bit prohibitive, due to the ideographic nature of the word formation of most Chinese characters, it is not out of reach to basically master it. Therefore, as far as vocabulary is concerned, the learning difficulty is not high; in contrast, the memory intensity of mastering the same number of foreign vocabulary is much greater.
From the perspective of classical Chinese, using the original meaning of characters is more accurate and efficient than over-reliance on words since the May 4th Vernacular Movement. For example, Mr. Zhu Bangfu proposed a retro approach to accurately using Chinese characters. .
Edit the number of Chinese characters in this paragraph
There is no accurate number of Chinese characters, but it is about nearly 100,000 (the Chinese character library of Beijing Guoan Consulting Equipment Company has 91,251 Chinese characters). Daily There are only a few thousand Chinese characters used. According to statistics, 1,000 commonly used words can cover about 92% of written materials, 2,000 words can cover more than 98%, and 3,000 words have reached 99%. The statistical results of simplified and traditional Chinese are not much different.
The total number of Chinese characters that have appeared in history is more than 80,000 (some say there are more than 60,000), most of which are variant characters and rare characters. The vast majority of variant characters and rare characters have died out naturally or been standardized. Except for ancient Chinese characters, they generally only appear occasionally in names of people and places. In addition, following the first batch of simplified characters, there are also a batch of "two simplified characters" that have been abolished, but there are still a few characters that are popular in society.
The first statistics on the number of Chinese characters was conducted by Xu Shen of the Han Dynasty in "Shuowen Jiezi", which included 9353 characters.
Later, the "Yupian" written by King Gu Ye of the Southern Dynasties was recorded to contain 16,917 words, and the "Daguangyihui Yupian" revised on this basis was said to have 22,726 words. After that, Lei Pian, compiled by officials in the Song Dynasty, contained more characters, with 31,319 characters; Ji Yun, another book compiled by officials in the Song Dynasty, contained 53,525 characters, which was once the book with the most characters.
In addition, some dictionaries also include more characters, such as the Qing Dynasty's "Kangxi Dictionary" with 47,035 characters; Japan's "Dahanwa Dictionary" with 48,902 characters and 1,062 appendixes; Taiwan's "Chinese Dictionary" "Big Dictionary" contains 49,905 characters; "Big Chinese Dictionary" contains 54,678 characters. The book with the largest number of published words in the 20th century was "Chinese Character Ocean", containing 85,000 words.
Among the Chinese character computer coding standards, the current largest Chinese character coding is Taiwan’s “National Standard” CNS11643. Currently (4.0) *** includes 76,067 verifiable traditional, simplified, Japanese, and Korean Chinese characters. However, it is not popular and is only used in a few environments such as household registration systems. The Big Five code commonly used by Taiwan and Hong Kong contains 13,053 traditional Chinese characters. GB18030 is the latest internal code character set of the People's Republic of China. GBK contains 20,912 simplified, traditional, Japanese, and Korean Chinese characters, while the early GB2312 contains 6,763 simplified Chinese characters. Unicode's basic Chinese, Japanese and Korean unified ideographic character set contains 20,902 Chinese characters, and there are two extension areas, with a total of more than 70,000 characters.
The initial Chinese character system did not have enough characters, and many things were represented by Tongjia characters, which caused great ambiguity in the expression of the text. In order to improve the clarity of expression, Chinese characters have gone through a stage of gradual complexity and a large increase in the number of characters. The excessive increase in the number of Chinese characters has caused difficulties in learning Chinese characters. The meaning that a single Chinese character can represent is limited, so many single Chinese meanings are represented by Chinese words, such as common two-character words. The current development of Chinese writing is mostly directed towards the creation of new words rather than new characters.
Edit this paragraph Chinese character encoding system
In order to exchange information, each area where Chinese characters are used has developed a series of Chinese character set standards.
The national standard code ("national standard" is the abbreviation of the National Standard of the People's Republic of China) is used in mainland China. GB2312 contains 6763 Chinese characters, GBK contains 20912 Chinese characters, and the latest GB18030 contains 27533 Chinese characters.
BIG5 code. Contains 13053 Chinese characters. One-byte or two-byte encoding used in Taiwan and Hong Kong.
Unicode is not well accepted by the Chinese government. The Chinese government requires that software sold in mainland China must support GB18030 encoding.
In the field of international communication and software design, CJK encoding collects Chinese character sets in Chinese, Japanese, and Korean.
Edit the Chinese character with the most strokes in this paragraph
The Chinese character biang with the most strokes is the Chinese character with the most strokes, ***17
biangbiang It is a kind of noodle originated from Shaanxi. Now it is also a brand of a noodle shop. This word is still used, but the writing method of biang cannot be found in the dictionary.
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