Antique dealers identify bronze wares by looking, touching, hearing, smelling, and licking them to judge and deduce their age and authenticity. This is entirely based on long-term accumulated practical experience. Today's experts have advanced scientific instruments, which can even be used for laser measurement (although the instruments are advanced, they are just a decoration in the hands of experts without basic knowledge.). As a general bronze lover, where should I start to identify the authenticity of a bronze? Only by mastering the key points of identifying ancient bronzes, namely rust color, feel and sound, pattern and style, copper quality and style, can we draw a more similar conclusion.
(1) Rust color
Bronze has been passed down for thousands of years, and there are roughly three ways: buried in the earth, dropped into the water, and handed down from generation to generation. Experts say: "If a bronze has been in water for a thousand years, it will be as green as a melon skin and as shiny as jade; if it is less than a thousand years old, it will be green but not shiny; if the bronze has not been in the water for a thousand years, its color will be purple-brown with cinnabar." Spots, or even raised spots. "Generally speaking, most of the unearthed copperware that has been passed down to this day is due to differences in copper quality and differences in soil and water quality in various places. The rust color of unearthed copperware is also different. Common ones include green rust, Red rust, blue rust, purple embroidery, etc. When you get a piece of copperware, you must first look at it with your eyes. If the rust color is integrated with the body of the copperware, the depth is consistent, solid, uniform, shiny and natural, then it is a naturally occurring rust color. If the rust color floats on the object, it is green but not shiny, the surface is rusty, and it is not moist, and it is dazzling, it is fake rust. At this time, further verification is done, rub the hands to heat them, touch the objects, and smell the hands with your nose, there must be copper. There is no fishy smell, because thousand-year-old bronze does not have the fishy smell of copper; you can also use hot alkaline water to wash it, and the fake rust will fall off. If it cannot be washed off, then roast it with fire and it will fall off; or lick it with your tongue. If there is a salty smell, it will also Fake rust
(2) Feel and sound
Weigh it with your hands. If it is too light or too heavy, you will need to pay attention. Of course, this is all based on experience. In addition, you can also tap the object with your hands and listen to the sound. If the sound is subtle and crisp, it is OK; if the sound is muddy and makes a "buzzing" sound, you need to be more vigilant.
(3) Patterns and identification
This is a key point in identifying bronzes. The patterns of Xia Dynasty bronzes are simple; the patterns of Shang Dynasty are gorgeous and complicated, and there are many flowers all over the body; the Western Zhou Dynasty roughly The same as that of the Shang Dynasty, but tended to be simple in the later period; the patterns of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period were fresh and lively, full of the flavor of life, while the Qin and Han Dynasties emphasized practicality, with fewer patterns and less finesse than those of the previous generation. In addition, it can also be inferred and judged from the changes in the content of decorative patterns in different eras. As for the name, it can mainly be distinguished from its font. The fonts of the Shang Dynasty were regular, vigorous and generous, graceful and free-spirited. In the later period, there were many elegant and beautiful wave-style calligraphy. In the early Zhou Dynasty, the wave-style calligraphy was followed. In the Spring and Autumn Period, the calligraphy styles had fat and thin styles, as well as the tadpole-shaped "Li Douwen". , as well as the patterned "bird and insect script"; the fonts of the Warring States inscriptions are not elegant, but there are also prototypes of the "hanging seal" with long vertical strokes and sharp ends; the Qin Dynasty unified the writing and used small seal script. After mastering this, it would be a joke if a small seal script appeared on a piece of bronze that was said to be from the third generation. In addition, it can also be judged based on the number and content of the inscriptions.
(4) Copper quality and style
It is easier to identify copper quality. Look at the bottom of the copperware. If brass texture is found, it is a fake; If the copper color has been faked, its original color can be seen by scrubbing it with hot alkaline water. In addition to clearly remembering the style and name of the bronze ware, you also need to know what type of bronze ware was cast in what era, and what type of bronze ware was cast in what era. For example, francium is a square shaped vessel that appeared in the late Warring States period. If it is made according to the work of the Three Dynasties and has a rusty color, it is a fake. Another example is the tripod, which is found in all generations, but if it has a lid and is short, it is unlikely to be an item from the third generation.
Identifying bronze ware is a tedious and difficult task, but as long as you master the key points, read more, remember more, and think more, you can still distinguish the true from the false.
(5) Introduction to the main decorative patterns of bronze ware
The Kui pattern represents a legendary dragon-like animal, with the text: "Kui... one leg." The patterns are mostly one corner, one foot, open mouth, and curled tail. Some Kui patterns have become geometric decorations. It is mostly used as the main pattern on the utensils.
Dragon pattern "Shuowen" "Dragon, the length of a scale insect, can be dark and bright, thin and giant", the pattern is based on the image of the legendary dragon. There are basically three forms: the flexed form, where several dragons are coiled around each other, with the head doubling in the middle.
The shape of the flat chi (chi sounds like eating) is like Kui, with an open mouth and a curly tail. According to "Mandarin·Wu Yu", "If it is a Qiu, it cannot be destroyed, but what if it is a snake." Wei Zhao notes: "A small snake is as big as a hornet." The pattern is composed of a small, bent snake (Qiu).
Some of the bird patterns have long feathers and drooping tails, and some have long tails rolled up, with their heads looking forward or looking back. Some birds also have high crowns on their heads that are raised or drooping. Bird patterns of this shape are also commonly known as phoenix bird patterns. Bird patterns are often used as thematic decorations on utensils.
Most of the cicada patterns have a cicada body in a triangle, without front and rear legs, and are surrounded by cloud and thunder patterns. There are also long ones with front and rear feet, and the middle is filled with cloud and thunder patterns.
The silkworm pattern has a round head, protruding eyes, and a flexed body. They are mostly decorated on the mouth or feet of the utensils.
The elephant pattern represents the shape of the animal. Some have obvious features such as a long nose, and some only use the elephant head and trunk as the pattern.
Fish pattern, the pattern shows the shape of fish, some fish images are dull, and some images are vivid. One or two dorsal fins and pelvic fins each. Fish patterns are often decorated on the plate, reflecting the close integration between the decoration and the shape of the utensils. Fish patterns are also often applied to bronze washers and bronze mirrors.
The shape of the tortoise pattern generally depicts the entire shape of the tortoise. It is rarely seen in bronze wares and is mostly applied to the plate.
The shell pattern is shaped like a shell, and individual shells are connected to form a pattern.
Cloud and thunder pattern is a typical decoration on bronze vessels. Its basic feature is the geometric shape formed by continuous convoluted lines. Some make circular continuous compositions, which are simply called cloud patterns; some make square continuous compositions, which are simply called thunder patterns. Cloud and thunder patterns are often used as ground patterns on bronze vessels to highlight thematic decorations. There are also some that appear alone on the neck or feet of the utensils.
The hooked thunder pattern is composed of lines that are connected to each other in an approximate "T" shape.
Nipple nail pattern is one of the simplest patterns on bronze vessels. The pattern is of raised papillae arranged in a single row or square matrix. There is another type in which the breast nails are placed in an oblique square grid, which is called the oblique square breast nail pattern.
Bronze ware in the Xia, Shang, Zhou, Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods was a glorious period of development, maturity and even heyday for bronze ware. Bronze, known as gold or lucky gold in ancient times, is an alloy of red copper and other chemical elements (tin, nickel, lead, phosphorus, etc.). Its patina is green, hence its name. Because the bronze ware reveals to people the casting technology, cultural level and historical origin of the Pre-Qin period with its unique shape, exquisite decoration, and elegant inscriptions, it is called "a living history book" by historians. From Xia, Shang and Zhou to Qin and Han, the time span is about two thousand years. Historically, it is called the "Bronze Age", which refers to the period when bronze tools and bronze ritual vessels were widely used. China's ancient civilization is long and profound, and bronzes are its epitome and representation.
A brief history of bronze ware
The bronze culture in ancient China was very developed and famous for its sophisticated production, majestic spirit and superb technology. Slave owners used bronze vessels as ritual vessels for banquets and in ancestral temples to worship their ancestors. Bronze is not something that ordinary people can own. It has been passed down to the world as a symbol of power and status, and as a ritual vessel to record events and show off achievements.
Bronze culture has developed in all regions of the world. This is because bronze has its advantages as a raw material for tools and utensils: first, there are natural pure copper blocks (i.e. red copper) in nature, so copper It is also one of the earliest metals known to mankind. However, red copper has low hardness and is not suitable for making production tools, so it plays little role in production. Later, people discovered tin ore and learned to refine tin. On this basis, people realized that copper with tin added, that is, bronze, is harder than pure copper. It has been measured that the hardness of red copper is 35 degrees on the Bollinger scale. Adding 5% tin will increase the hardness to 68 degrees; adding 10% tin will increase the hardness to 88 degrees. And after tempering, the hardness can be further improved.
In ancient China, people were able to accurately grasp the tin-lead ratio of bronze. Tin and lead can be added in proportion according to different casting expectations. "Zhou Li __ Kao Gong Ji" clearly records the proportions of different alloys used in making different alloys: six parts are gold and one is tin, which is called Zhongdingqi (agent). Five-fifths of it is gold and one-fifth of it is tin, which is called axe-jinqi (agent). Four parts are made of gold and one part is made of tin, which is called the uniformity of weapons and halberds. Three-thirds of it is gold and one is tin, which is called a large blade. The fifth is gold and the second is tin, which is called the equalization (agent) of cutting the arrows (arrows). Half gold and tin are called the equalizer of Jiansui (bronze mirror).
Generally, the more tin is added, the harder the cast bronze will be, but at the same time, the bronze will also become more brittle. Secondly, the bronze solution has good fluidity and has a very small shrinkage rate during solidification. Therefore, it is possible to cast some objects with very exquisite details. Finally, bronze has stable chemical properties, corrosion resistance, and can be stored for a long time. In addition, bronze has a low melting point and does not require very high temperatures when melting. Therefore, after a bronze vessel is worn out, it can be recast. Archeology proves that Chinese bronzes have a long history, and their history can be traced back to around 3,000 BC. About two thousand years ago, China entered the Bronze Age starting from the Xia Dynasty, a slave society, and ended with the Spring and Autumn Period. From the Xia, Shang, Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn Period to the feudal society of the Warring States, Qin and Han Dynasties, each period has its own development and evolution system that has been inherited successively. There are many kinds and shapes of ancient bronzes in my country, including: ritual vessels, production tools, weapons, chariots and horses, and other utensils. Among them, ritual vessels include food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels and musical instruments.
Ritual vessels: The highly developed bronze ritual vessels are one of the distinctive features that distinguish ancient Chinese bronze culture from the ancient bronze cultures of other countries. This is also the essential feature of ancient Chinese bronze culture. The development of ritual vessels was determined by the extremely strong "patriarchal blood" relationship in ancient China's slave society. People's worship of ancestors and gods goes far beyond their own identity. Bronze ritual vessels appeared in the Xia Dynasty. By the Shang Dynasty, especially in the late Shang Dynasty, bronze ritual vessels had become very mature and all major types of vessels were available, including food vessels, wine vessels, water vessels, and musical instruments. The tripod is the main food vessel among bronze ritual vessels. In ancient society, it was used as a symbol of the hierarchy and power of the ruling class. "Historical Records - Book of Fengchan" records: "(Xia) Yu collected Jiu Mu's gold (copper) and cast Jiuding." From then on, Jiuding became a symbol of royal power and a treasure passed down to the country. Later, "Jie had a disorderly conduct, and the tripod was moved to Shang." Zhou Dynasty destroyed Shang, and King Cheng moved Jiuding to Luoyi (today's Luoyang). During the Spring and Autumn Period, in the first year of King Ding of Zhou Dynasty (606 BC), King Zhuang of Chu defeated the army of Lu Hun and sent troops near Luoyi. King Ding sent Wang Sunman to express his condolences. King Zhuang of Chu took the opportunity to inquire about the "bigness and importance" of Jiuding, but Wang Sunman was met by Wang Sunman. Man's powerful refutation: "Although Zhou's virtue has declined, the destiny of heaven has not changed, and the importance of the tripod cannot be asked" ("Zuo Zhuan·Xuan AD 3"). This is the famous "quest for the crown" story in history.
The earliest bronze tripod discovered by archeology is the early Shang Dynasty bronze tripod unearthed from the Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan. The Houmuwu (Simuwu) tripod of the late Shang Dynasty was unearthed in Wuguan Village, Yinxu, Anyang in 1939. It has a rectangular bucket-shaped belly, two straight ears on the mouth rim, and four cylindrical feet below the belly. The abdomen is decorated with animal face patterns and Kui [kuikui] patterns, the outside of the ears is decorated with the pattern of two tigers eating human heads, and the upper parts of the feet are also decorated with animal mask patterns, all with cloud and thunder patterns as the ground pattern, which is mysterious and complicated. There is an inscription on the inner wall of the abdomen with the words "Hou Mu Wu", which indicates that it was made by King Zu Geng or Zu Jia of the Shang Dynasty to worship his mother Wu. It is huge, with a height of 1.33 meters, a length of 1.10 meters, and a width of 0.79 meters. In 1994, it was measured by the Ministry of Science and Technology of the Chinese History Museum and the China Institute of Metrology. The measured weight was 832.84 kilograms. It was not only the heaviest in ancient China but also in the ancient world. of bronze. It is exquisitely made and cast from multiple pieces of pottery inner and outer molds. It represents the high level of ancient China's bronze smelting and casting industry and the unparalleled wisdom and creativity of the ancient Chinese people. The bronze tripod was developed on the basis of the widespread use of pottery tripods in the Neolithic Age. The earliest bronze tripod discovered so far appeared in the early Shang Dynasty, that is, the Erligang Cultural Period of the Shang Dynasty. It went through various dynasties and was used until the Han Dynasty and even the Wei and Jin Dynasties. It was the longest-used among bronze ware, so it also changed a lot. Those belonging to the Shang Dynasty include round tripods, Ge tripods, flat-leg tripods, square tripods, etc. In the Shang Dynasty, the tripod system was used, and in small and medium-sized tombs, one or two bodies were usually buried with them. This is true whether it is Yinxu or areas outside Yinxu. However, the royal tombs are very different. Two square tripods, two square tripods with flat feet, thirty-two round tripods of different sizes, and a few broken fragments were unearthed from Fuhao's tomb in Yinxu in the late Shang Dynasty. It can be seen that medium and small tombs and royal tombs The hierarchy is very strict. What clearly shows the hierarchical order is the tripod system of the Western Zhou Dynasty. In Tomb No. 1 of the early Western Zhou Dynasty in Zhuyuangou, Baoji, a group of three tripods of different sizes and two matching tripods have appeared. The higher the slave owner's noble rank, the more he can use it, which means the richer meat he can enjoy. According to the records of the Book of Rites, in the Western Zhou Dynasty: the emperor used nine tripods. The first tripod was for cattle, which was called Tailao. The following tripods were for sheep, pigs, fish, bacon, intestines and stomach, skin, fresh fish and fresh wax; Ding, also known as Dalao, uses less fresh meat and fresh bacon; (but in the Eastern Zhou Dynasty, princes also used nine tripods for banquets with officials); officials used five tripods, called Shaolao, and the tripod was actually made of sheep, hogs, fish, bacon, and skin. ; The scholars used three tripods, but the tripods were actually pigs, fish, and wax. (The scholars also used one tripod, and the tripods were actually pigs.)
Development period of bronze ware
The early and middle Shang Dynasty (16th century BC to 13th century BC). The bronze ware in the early and middle Shang Dynasty is the mature development of Chinese bronze art. period. A system of ritual vessels, mainly wine vessels, was initially established, and the types of weapons increased. They are generally decorated with animal face patterns, with increasingly dense compositions and sharp, deep and sharp lines. The application of separate casting technology has been relatively proficient, and the standardization and standardization technology has made considerable progress. Many bronzes from this period were found in the middle reaches of the Yellow River and Yangtze River, laying the foundation for the prosperity of bronze art.
The heyday of bronzes
The late Shang Dynasty and the early Western Zhou Dynasty (13th century BC - 11th century BC), the bronze art from the late Shang Dynasty to the early Western Zhou Dynasty was brilliant and brilliant. The heavy wine system of ritual vessels in the Shang Dynasty was perfected, and the decorations all over the vessel's body used a combination of relief and flat carvings, which are exquisite. The use of exaggerated and symbolic techniques to express animals, gods and monsters has unprecedentedly developed animal facial patterns, which are both majestic, mysterious and full of vitality. Chronicle inscriptions appeared in the late Shang Dynasty. In the early Zhou Dynasty, ritual utensils followed the commercial system, and there were signs of a shift to a food-focused system. Long inscriptions are an important feature of bronze ritual vessels of the Western Zhou Dynasty.
Transitional Bronze Ware
The middle to late Western Zhou Dynasty and the early Spring and Autumn Period (late 11th century BC to the first half of the 7th century BC), the bronze wares of the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty formed a food-heavy system. The system of tripods, the system of bells and the custom of giving orders to make utensils have been formed. New types of utensils appeared, with dignified and heavy shapes, and the decorations were mostly animal deformations, which either flowed smoothly or were simple and simple. It is very popular to make inscriptions on utensils, and it is common to see heavy utensils with long inscriptions. The shapes and decorations of the early Spring and Autumn Period are a natural continuation of the middle and late Western Zhou Dynasty. Bronze casting industries were generally established in various vassal states, and the levels varied. Some casting techniques were a little rough, while the tools of large countries were still relatively sophisticated.
Renewal Period Bronze Ware
In the mid-Spring and Autumn Period and the late Warring States Period (second half of the 7th century BC - 221 BC), from the mid-Spring and Autumn Period to the Warring States Period, the development of bronze art reached its climax again. . Bronze wares from various countries are becoming more mature, with obvious regional characteristics. The bronze art of Jin and Qin in the north, Qilu in the east, and Jingchu in the south complement each other. The daily practicality of utensils has increased, and the function of ritual utensils has gradually disappeared. With the innovation of shapes, many strange and exquisite utensils appeared. The dragon-themed decorations are detailed and intricate, and portraits of people in action creatively appear as the main patterns. The lost wax method and the stamped block assembly method were developed, and the inlay process was gorgeous and skillful. The inscription font also pays attention to beautification. In the late Warring States period, bronze art tended to be simple and plain.
The Qin and Han dynasties are the afterglow of the development history of bronze ware.
Bronze vessels are mainly divided into five categories: wine vessels, food vessels, water vessels, musical instruments and weapons.
Wine vessels
Juejue vessels for drinking wine are the earliest bronze ritual vessels that appeared. The general shape of a jue is: there is a flow in front, which is a trough for pouring wine, a sharp tail at the back, a cup shape in the middle, a pàn on the ventral side, and three legs below. There is a column between the flow and the mouth of the cup (the column may be used for filtration).
Jiao (sound jue) drinking vessel. No columns, flow, both ends are tails. The capacity ratio of Jiao Tongjue is four to one.
The earliest bronze angle discovered so far is the special-shaped pipe flow angle from the Erlitou Culture period collected in the Shanghai Museum.
Zungao body, large or medium-sized wine container. According to their shapes, they can be divided into three categories: shouldered and large-mouthed statues, goblet-shaped statues, and bird and animal statues.
The pot is used to hold wine. It was used from the Shang Dynasty to the Han Dynasty or later. Shop head: The base that holds the door knocker, usually with the head of a tiger, chi, turtle, snake, etc., which serves to decorate the body of the pot.
卣: (sound you) wine container. Popular in the late Shang Dynasty and Western Zhou Dynasty.
Gang: (gōng) a wine vessel. The real name of the vessel is not yet known, but it is a convention to call it a wine vessel. It appeared in the late Yinxu period and was used until the early Western Zhou Dynasty.
Yifang Yi (yí) is a wine vessel. Generally square in shape, it appeared in the late Shang Dynasty.
Eating utensils
Beans are specially used for placing pickles, meat sauces and condiments. Bronze beans appeared in the late Shang Dynasty and became popular in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. The bell-bearing copper beans unearthed in Baode County, Shanxi Province in the late Shang Dynasty are the earliest known bronze beans. Beans are also a type of ritual vessel and usually appear in pairs. There were also certain rules and regulations in ancient times regarding the quantity of beans used. "The Book of Rites and Rituals" records that "there are rituals in which more is more valuable... the emperor has six out of twenty beans, six out of ten princes, two out of ten princes, eight high-ranking officials, and six inferior officials." However, There are fewer bronze beans unearthed and handed down from ancient times, which may be related to the fact that people at that time mostly used pottery beans, lacquer beans, bamboo and wood beans.
The bronze tripod is used for various purposes such as cooking meat, eating animals for sacrifice and feasting. The earliest bronze tripod discovered so far appeared in the early Shang Dynasty and was used through various dynasties until the Han Dynasty and even the Wei and Jin Dynasties. It is the longest-used and most varied vessel among bronze vessels. As a cooking utensil, the tripod has no special function, but as a ritual vessel, it is a symbol of the hierarchy and power of the ruling class. In ancient society, there was a corresponding system for the number of tripods, which was called the "lined tripod system". According to literature records, the emperor used nine tripods during the Western Zhou Dynasty. The first tripod held cattle, which was called "Tai Lao", and the following tripod held sheep, pigs, fish, fat, intestines and stomach, fat, fresh fish, and fresh wax. The princes generally used seven tripods, also called Dalao. , reduce the amount of fresh meat and add two flavors of fresh bacon; the official Qing Dynasty used five tripods, called Shaolao, to hold sheep, pigs, fish, bacon, and skin; scholars used three tripods to hold pigs, fish, and bacon, and scholars also used one tripod. Sheng pig.
Zi (pronounced yan) is a rice steaming vessel. The whole vessel is divided into upper and lower parts. The upper body is used to hold rice, which was called "Zeng" (zhèng) in ancient times; the lower body is Li (lì), which is used to boil water. , with holes in the middle for ventilation. Bronze pawns had been cast in the early Shang Dynasty, but there were very few of them. From the late Shang Dynasty to the early Western Zhou Dynasty, there were more of them, especially during the Western Weekend and the early Spring and Autumn Period. Gui (sound guǐ) is a utensil for holding cooked rice, beams and other meals. Bronze Gui appeared in the early Shang Dynasty, but in small numbers, and gradually increased in the late Shang Dynasty. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, Gui was an important ritual instrument. Especially in the Western Zhou Dynasty, it was the same as the tripod system. Even-numbered combinations were used in conjunction with odd-numbered tripods during sacrifices and banquets. According to records, the emperor used nine tripods and eight guis, the princes used seven tripods and six guis, the officials used five tripods and four guis, and the Yuan Dynasty officials used three tripods and two guis. Most of the Gui unearthed are even numbers.
Dun (pronounced duì) is a vessel for holding millet, millet, rice, beam and other food. It was developed by combining the shapes of tripod and gui. It was produced in the middle of the Spring and Autumn Period and became popular from the late Spring and Autumn Period to the late Warring States Period. , disappeared after Qin. Its basic shape is round both top and bottom, inside and outside, and the lid and the vessel are combined to form a sphere or oval.
Li (sound lì) is a porridge cooker. The bronze Li first appeared in the early Shang Dynasty. It has a large mouth and a bag-shaped belly, like three cow udders put together, with three shorter cones underneath. foot. The function of the bag-shaped belly was to expand the fire-receiving area and cook food quickly. However, after the late Shang Dynasty, the bag-shaped belly gradually degenerated, and most bronze kettles had exquisite patterns, which were not suitable for fire cooking and were used as porridge vessels.