It turns out that in ancient times, Britain, a small island in the Atlantic Ocean, was not taken seriously. On the map of the world drawn by the ancients, Britain was placed at the ends of the earth. At that time, people in continental Europe, across the English Channel, could only vaguely see the gray cliffs on the coast of the British Island, so they called it "albion". Until the Middle Ages, some people in continental Europe still looked down upon it. 14 14 at a Catholic international conference held in Constantine, Black Sea, representatives of France, Germany, Spain and other countries thought that Britain was only a small country such as Denmark and Portugal, and its representatives could not be equal to those of other big countries and should not enjoy the right to vote.
But in modern times, Britain has become an important power in the world. Relying on the increasingly strong national strength and powerful navy, it defeated Spain, the Netherlands and France in the 16 and 17 centuries and became an invincible maritime hegemon. Later, it extended the tentacles of colonialism to all corners of the world and gradually built the largest colonial empire in human history. Wherever the sun shines 24 hours a day, you can see the flags of British colonialists flying. At this time, modern British history became an important part of the whole world history.
Like other countries and nations in the world, British history has its own unique characteristics. One of its characteristics is its long and lasting parliamentary tradition. As early as the Middle Ages, the British Parliament existed. /kloc-in the 9th century, parliament, as the core force leading the revolution, launched a struggle to overthrow the absolute monarchy; Send the king to the guillotine; Established a Republic without a king and a house of lords. This revolution was born in the crisis of feudal system in Europe, and then it had a far-reaching impact on the whole of Europe. Although the Stuart dynasty was later restored, the royalists failed in their attempt to return the wheel of history to before the revolution. After repeated struggles in the 1920s and 1930s, the Stuart dynasty was overthrown again. 1688 After the Glorious Revolution, the British constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system were established and gradually consolidated. This was the most democratic political system in the world at that time; Compared with the autocratic monarchy in continental Europe and eastern countries, it has made great progress. In a country with absolute monarchy, the will of the monarch is the law, and people from all walks of life endure suffering under the yoke of absolute monarchy. Louis XIV of France called himself "I am a country" and equated the country with himself. Those courtiers who fell at his feet called him "the king of the sun"; "The Sun King" in his Palace of Versailles "suppressed everyone to a humble position of submission; He despises everyone who comes to his court. None of those civil servants dared to disagree with him. He also calculated that every nobleman should be Nuo Nuo-only to Nuo Nuo, afraid to show his personality, and only mix with the slavish crowd. " (1) In the shadow of the luxurious Palace of Versailles, how many people live a miserable life in the dark under the heavy shackles of tyranny! The story of the famous "Iron Mask Man" in the Bastille is only known to the world because of Voltaire's disclosure. In fact, how many things are far worse than this! Under the czar's autocratic serfdom "dark kingdom", tens of millions of serfs in Qian Qian, Russia, lived a worse life. Catherine II once gave about 800,000 peasants as serfs to her minions. Serf owners can abuse and buy and sell these serfs at will. At that time, two Russian newspapers, Moscow News and St. Petersburg News, often advertised the sale of serfs with racehorses and hounds. (2) Under the tight control of these tyrants, people can only hear the praises of the "Sun King" and the "kind czar" in public, but in fact, tens of millions of oppressed people have a deep hatred for the single husband and thief who harmed the people. In his book published in 1990, Rajshev reveals that in Russia, farmers live a "fate of criminals with cangue, and the fate of prisoners in dungeons;" This is the fate of cattle and horses under the yoke. " He thinks the tsar is "the most ferocious murderer among all murderers;" The most serious criminal of all criminals. "A death is not enough to compensate him. He should die a hundred times. ⑶
Compared with these countries, Britain has great political democracy, freedom of speech and relaxed social environment in modern times. /kloc-During the Great Revolution in the 0/9th century, the people who got rid of the shackles of autocracy were in high spirits and showed great creativity. Milton described the enthusiasm of the people at that time and said, "I seem to see a proud and powerful nation, like a giant waking from a deep sleep, shaking its heavy shackles and standing up!" " "(4) In the environment of freedom of speech, people's creativity has been fully exerted. They have written books and expressed their opinions. Various publications and brochures have sprung up in large numbers; Only 1645, 722 publications have been published in Britain. 5] Later, after the Restoration Dynasty was overthrown, 1695, Britain officially abolished the censorship of books and newspapers. People in the academic and literary circles can give full play to their intelligence. Groups of natural scientists, philosophical and social scientists and writers, like bright stars, appear in the field of knowledge, dazzling.
Britain's relative democracy and freedom in politics not only provide conditions for its own people to exert their creativity, but also provide shelter for progressives persecuted by tyranny. When France set off a wave of religious persecution, thousands of Huguenots fled to Britain. Later, a large number of people were exiled to Britain, including Marx, herzen, Ogarev and other famous revolutionaries and thinkers. Marx's Das Kapital and other important works were published in Britain. Herzen founded Free Russia Printing House in Britain, published Polaris and Bell magazines, and published articles on revolutionary democracy, exposing and criticizing Russian autocracy and serfdom. 1864, the first international International Working Men’s Association was also established in London.
Britain's constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system have become examples for advanced people in feudal autocratic countries. /kloc-Montesquieu, a French enlightenment scholar in the 0 th and 8 th centuries, highly praised the British political system. /kloc-at the end of 0/9, the reform movement in China rose, and the reformists followed the example of British constitutional monarchy and parliamentary system.
Another feature of the historical development of Britain is that since the Middle Ages, its military bureaucratic state machine has been relatively weak. /kloc-At the beginning of the 9th century, there were only 20,000 to 30,000 full-time paid officials in Britain. Many of them are servants of the king. There is no full-time police, only temporary police; They are composed of ordinary farmers and craftsmen for a term of one year; Local governors are held by nobles in turn. Before the civil war, Britain had no standing army, and even the king himself did not have a fixed guard; In an emergency, the king can temporarily convene only a few dozen armed men; The task of opposing foreign invasion and suppressing domestic rebellion is mainly undertaken by militia; They were called and led by local nobles. Until the middle of19th century, Britain was still one of the countries with the weakest military bureaucracy and state machine in the world. Based on this, Marx believed that Britain could achieve a peaceful transition from capitalism to socialism through universal suffrage.
Britain's social class structure is not tight, there are no strict and fixed boundaries between classes, and there is great mobility between classes, which is also a feature different from other countries. In early modern times, when people talked about which classes British society was divided into, there was no clear definition; People have different words and expressions. /kloc-At the end of 0/6, william harrison divided people in British society into four classes, but the boundary between the upper class and the lower class was not clear. For example, about "gentlemen", he said that "gentlemen" are those who "become noble and famous because of their birth and lineage, or at least because of their virtue." In this way, people feel that the status of a gentleman can be obtained by birth and virtue. In addition, in his works around 1600, thomas wilson divided the social classes in Britain into five classes. However, the boundaries between the five grades are also blurred. He said, "Many knights are as rich as the best barons, and they are not much worse than many earl." Such a division standard is even more vague. This is because there are no strict boundaries between classes in the reality of British society. Because the class boundaries are not strict, the mobility between classes is greater; It is not difficult to transfer from one class to another. A person can change his social status as long as he works hard.
These characteristics make Britain's social and political life relatively flexible and flexible. In modern British history, political contradictions and social contradictions can often be adjusted through small changes, so as not to accumulate and erupt into large-scale violent conflicts. Except for the civil war during the17th century revolution, there has never been a large-scale violent struggle in modern Britain. At the same time, in such a social environment, the political platform and power that advocates peaceful and gradual progress and opposes violent revolution are particularly powerful.
Long-term stable social environment and stable political situation; The mobility and flexibility of class relations are great; Freedom of academic thought; Encouraging scientific and technological inventions, coupled with other natural conditions and other factors, led to Britain's first industrial revolution in the world. When the British industrial revolution began, on the European continent, the French revolution was going on vigorously. People's attention was attracted by the violent scenes of blood and fire in the French Revolution, and they paid little attention to the less noisy process of economic and technological change in Britain. But a century later, the far-reaching influence of the industrial revolution became more and more obvious. It not only caused great changes in economy and production technology, but also led to drastic changes in social structure. In production technology, machine production has replaced manual labor, and the output has increased by dozens or even hundreds of times. Productivity is also growing rapidly. 18 12 years, the cotton yarn produced by one spinning machine was equivalent to the cotton yarn produced by 200 spinning machines before the industrial revolution. ⑾ The industrial revolution has also greatly changed the relationship between man and nature and between people. In the long history of human development, thousands of years before the industrial revolution, due to low productivity, people can only rely on and succumb to the insurmountable power of nature to achieve harmony with nature. Although I have worked hard all my life and tried my best, I still can't maintain the minimum living standard and often fall into hunger and cold. Until the Middle Ages, there were still 40-60% people in rural Europe, and it was often difficult to maintain the minimum living; Even in cities, workers are often hungry and naked. After the industrial revolution, with the rapid improvement of social productive forces, people's living standards have gradually improved. /kloc-In the 9th century 100, the population of Britain tripled, but the real income calculated according to the average population still quadrupled. Some people say that the British industrial revolution is a successful example, because its result is: "As the population increases, more products are produced, and the per capita products are increasing." The technological development caused by the industrial revolution in transportation has also had a far-reaching impact on interpersonal relations and international relations. Before the industrial revolution, inconvenient transportation and mountains and rivers often became insurmountable obstacles. /kloc-In the middle of the 9th century, the fastest sailing ship in the world was the British Cutty Sark, and it took more than four months to sail from China to Britain. (13) People in different regions and countries are isolated from each other, which is an objective factor that causes estrangement, suspicion and even war. After the industrial revolution, the means of transportation changed with each passing day, and all regions of the world were linked by a unified economic chain. People from all countries in the world have convenient and frequent exchanges, and people from all countries and regions have increasingly enhanced mutual understanding and consistency of interests.
However, we say that the politics of modern Britain is relatively democratic and free, only compared with the autocratic countries in continental Europe and the East. In fact, in Britain, the democratic process in which sovereignty belongs to the people has never been carried out to the end. Although the censorship of books and newspapers in Britain was abolished at the end of 19 and has not been restored since, writers who expose and criticize real politics are still persecuted. /kloc-at the end of 0/8, radical democracy rose in Britain, and the British government issued a decree to suspend the entry into force of the habeas corpus law. At the same time, the Law on Judgement of Rebellion and the Law on Rebellion Assembly have been enacted to restrict people's freedom of speech and assembly, and offenders will be severely punished until they are sentenced to death. The court exiled radical Democrats Thomas Moore and Palma to Australia on charges of "spreading the seeds of discontent and rebellion". ⒁
When Britain served as a refuge for foreign advanced people, its rulers pursued a policy of suppressing revolution and colonial aggression in foreign relations. After the French Revolution began, British rulers became the main advocates and organizers against the French Revolution. British colonialists also carried out crazy colonial plunder all over the world. As early as the17th century, when the British conquered Ireland, they were burned and killed in cities such as Troy, and even the old, weak, women and children were not spared. As a result, 1/3 of the Irish population died in the war; Plague and hunger spread all over Ireland. In some places, "people walked two or three miles through Fiona Fang without seeing a living thing; Whether it is people, livestock or poultry. " When talking about the bloody plunder of British colonists in the West Indies, a British officer also said: "We will turn our image into a group of cruel, bloody and inhuman people. "⒂ The first unequal treaty in the history of our country was imposed on our people by British colonialists through the Opium War by means of learning and fire.
Although Britain's industrial revolution has great progressive significance, as the industrialization of capitalism, it has also brought some serious negative effects. After the industrial revolution, the wealth of the bourgeoisie grew rapidly, but the working people were more and more in dire straits. For the working class, the newly-built factory is just a "dark and dirty prison" [14]. They are not "shelters of civilization, but barracks of industry". ⒄ in the big cities built rapidly after the industrial revolution, the order is chaotic and the environment is polluted. The workers gathered in the noisy factory and worked hard day and night. These big cities have become "desolate and barren places, with no colors, songs and laughter. Only men, women, old people and young people work, eat and sleep in them ... The new textile mills or steel mills are like pyramids, casting a long shadow on this proud society". In society, "the scourge of Midas" is everywhere, just like King Midas in ancient Greek fables, people greedily try to turn everything into gold; In the face of glittering money, flowers, poetry, friendship and love are eclipsed. Money is paramount, and material desires cross-flow. Toynbee pointed out that "the industrial revolution proved that free competition can create wealth, but it can't create happiness."
China's study of English history began in the middle of19th century. Before that, China and Britain were thousands of miles away from Qian Shan and didn't know each other. Before the Suez Canal was opened, China and Britain had to bypass the Cape of Good Hope in Africa and go through a long sea bump. During the Opium War, British colonists used gunboats to open China's door to the outside world. China's advanced people, in the vital environment of the nation, know that knowing ourselves and knowing ourselves is the only way to win a hundred battles, so they set out to study Britain and other western powers and their history. They found that the reason why China lags behind the West is not only because its weapons and equipment are inferior to those of people, but also because it is politically backward. Wang Tao, who has been to Britain, pointed out that Britain's prosperity lies not in its "excellent firearms and invincible armored warships", but in its constitutional political monarchy and parliamentary system of "rule by the people". All state affairs must be discussed by both houses of parliament. "Everyone must agree and then implement it." ⒇ Since the Reform Movement of 1898 at the end of 19, more and more books have been introduced to Britain and western countries after the Revolution of 1911 and the May 4th Movement. Between 19 19 and 1949, about fifty or sixty books with English history as the main content were published. (2 1)
The study of British history after 1949, like other academic departments, has made great achievements and made great progress, but there are also some serious defects. Mainly manifested in the left-leaning dogmatism was once very serious. In historical works, violence and struggle are blindly praised, and all historical phenomena of peace and progress, political parties and theories advocating peace and progress in the history of Britain and other countries and people are blindly criticized and denied. At the same time, the cult of personality is rampant, and the evaluation of historical events and figures is not based on historical facts, but only on the quotations of classic writers or individual political leaders. Academic exchanges with foreign countries are almost completely cut off.
After the Cultural Revolution, the ultra-left terrorist line was corrected. Science and culture gradually recovered from the disaster, showing a vigorous development momentum. The study of modern British history has also begun to embark on a healthy road. Over the past 100 years, especially in recent decades, our people have gained rich experience and suffered painful lessons in social practice. Based on this practice, we have gained some new and deeper understandings by observing the modern history of Britain, especially deeply feeling that many wrong ideas in the ultra-left line in the past must be corrected. In modern history, Britain has accumulated rich cultural achievements, gained many successful experiences and made many mistakes in political life and economic construction. We should study and summarize them realistically and objectively in order to build a better future for our country.